Contextual Factors That May Impact on the Development and Implementation of the Sugary Drinks Policy Comment on "Understanding Marketing Responses to a Tax on Sugary Drinks: A Qualitative Interview Study in the United Kingdom, 2019".

Forde et al proposed an interesting framework to understand marketing response to a tax in sugary drinks based on stakeholder interviews. Sugary drinks regulation can lead to various strategies in the industry's marketing activity. That is, it can either result in the industry introducing no changes or it can lead to changes, which can conflict or align with public health objectives. The importance of Forde and colleagues' analysis lies in the potential for governments to anticipate the industry's reaction to the legislation and the need of drivers to enable both big and small companies to follow the rules. Governments must not forget the importance of other contextual factors that will have an impact both on the development and implementation of this type of policies and on possible responses that could mitigate their impact such as public acceptance, the influence of mass media and corporate activities aimed at influencing policy.

Prevalence and gender disparities of type 2 diabetes mellitus and obesity in Esmeraldas, Ecuador: a population-based survey in a hard-to-reach setting.

BACKGROUND: Type 2 Diabetes (T2DM) prevalence is increasing in low- and middle-income countries along with high levels of obesity which vary according to socioeconomic and contextual characteristics. We aim to estimate the prevalence of T2DM and obesity in men and women in a hard-to-reach rural area in northern Ecuador considering socio-demographic characteristics. METHODS: Cross-sectional descriptive study based on a population-based survey in the Eloy Alfaro health district of Esmeraldas between October 2020 and January 2022. We collected sociodemographic information and risk factors for non-communicable diseases with an adapted version of the STEPS survey, performed oral glucose tolerance tests, biochemistry and took physical measurements. We estimated the prevalence of T2DM, obesity, and calculated Odds Ratios (OR) with confidence intervals by logistic regression in Stata v.15. RESULTS: The overall prevalence of T2DM was 6.8% (CI95%: 4.9-8.7), markedly higher among women compared to men (10.4%, CI95% 7.3-13.4%, compared 2.0%, CI95% 0.4-3.7% respectively). The risk of having T2DM in women was 5 times higher than in men adjusting for age, ethnicity, employment, household earnings and obesity (OR: 5.03; 95%CI: 1.68-15.01). Regarding age, the risk of T2DM increased by 6% per year (adjusted OR: 1.06; 95%CI: 1.03-1.08). Obesity prevalence was 30.8% (CI95%: 27.3-34.3), in women was nearly three times higher than in men (43.2% CI95%: 38.2-48.2, compared to 14.7% prevalence, CI95%: 10.6-18.8). Indigenous women had a lower prevalence of obesity compared with the Afro-Ecuadorian women (OR: 0.05; 95%CI: 0.02-0.18) after adjusting for age, employment status, household earnings and setting. CONCLUSION: We found alarming differences between the prevalence of T2DM and obesity in women and men that may be explained by gender roles, exacerbated in the rural context. Health promotion measures with a gender perspective should be adapted according to the characteristics of isolated rural contexts.

Access to health services for chronic disease care during the COVID-19 pandemic in Ecuador: A qualitative analysis using a Social Determinants of Health approach.

This qualitative study aims to explore how the COVID-19 pandemic impacted healthcare access for patients with chronic conditions in Ecuador from the patient's perspective. We interviewed 19 patients diagnosed with arterial hypertension or type 2 diabetes in rural and urban areas of Ecuador during August and September 2020. We used the Framework Method to analyse the interview transcripts with ATLAS.Ti 8.4 and organised the ideas discussed using categories from the World Health Organization Commission on the Social Determinants of Health conceptual framework. Reorganization of health services during the pandemic meant that patients with arterial hypertension or diabetes could no longer attend face-to-face appointments for disease follow-up. System failures related to medication supply led to increased out-of-pocket payments, which, together with reduced or absent earnings, and in a context with limited social protection policies, meant that patients frequently went for prolonged periods without medication. Rural health initiatives, support from family and use of traditional medicine were reported as ways to manage their chronic condition during this time. Barriers to disease management disproportionately affected individuals with low socioeconomic positions. Stock shortages, lack of protective labour policies and limited reach of anticipatory policies for health emergencies likely worsened pre-existing health inequities in Ecuador.

Epidemiological study on gender bias and low-value practices in primary care: a study protocol.

INTRODUCTION: Evidence shows that gender has a substantial impact on health behaviours, access to and use of health systems and health system responses. This study aims to assess gender bias in patients subjected to low-value practices in the primary care setting and to develop recommendations for reducing adverse events that women experience for this reason. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: A Delphi study will be performed to reach a consensus on the 'Do Not Do' recommendations with a possible gender bias. A retrospective cohort study in a random selection of medical records will then be carried out to identify the frequency of adverse events that occur when the selected 'Do Not Do' recommendations are ignored. Qualitative research techniques (consensus conference and nominal group) will be carried out to develop recommendations to address any gender bias detected, considering barriers and facilitators in clinical practice. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: The study was approved by the ethics committee of San Juan de Alicante Hospital (San Juan de Alicante, Spain) Reference N. 21/061. We will disseminate the research findings via peer-reviewed articles, presentations at national and international scientific forums and webinars. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: The study was registered at ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT05233852) on 10 February 2022.

Addressing Health Disparities through Community Participation: A Scoping Review of Co-Creation in Public Health.

BACKGROUND: There is general agreement regarding the relevance of community involvement in public health policy, practice, and research to reduce health inequities. OBJECTIVE: This review aims to analyse the experiences of community engagement in public health actions, with particular attention to methodologies used and how community participation is articulated. METHOD AND ANALYSIS: We searched the Web of Science, EBSCO, and ProQuest for scientific articles published in peer-reviewed journals. We recorded methodological aspects, the approach to equity, actors that participated in the actions, and participation of the community in different phases (agenda setting, design, implementation, and evaluation). RESULTS: Of 4331 records, we finally included 31 studies published between 1995 and 2021. Twelve studies referred to Community-Based Participatory Research as the framework used. The actions addressed equity, mainly by tackling economic vulnerability (n = 20, 64%) and racial discrimination (n = 18, 58%). Workshops were the most used method. Participation was frequently observed in the design and implementation phases of the action, but it was reduced to community feedback in the evaluation. CONCLUSIONS: Co-created public health actions offer the opportunity to reduce health inequity and promote social change; yet, further effort is needed to involve communities in the entire cycle of decision making.

Gender Differences in the Impact of Recommendations on Diagnostic Imaging Tests: A Retrospective Study 2007-2021.

(1) Background: The frequency of imaging tests grew exponentially in recent years. This increase may differ according to a patient's sex, age, or socioeconomic status. We aim to analyze the impact of the Council Directive 2013/59/Euratom to control exposure to radiation for men and women and explore the impact of patients' age and socioeconomic status; (2) Methods: The retrospective observational study that includes a catchment population of 234,424. We included data of CT, mammography, radiography (conventional radiography and fluoroscopy) and nuclear medicine between 2007-2021. We estimated the associated radiation effective dose per test according using previously published evidence. We calculated a deprivation index according to the postcode of their residence. We divided the study in 2007-2013, 2014-2019 and 2020-2021 (the pandemic period). (3) Results: There was an increase in the number of imaging tests received by men and women after 2013 (p < 0.001), and this increase was higher in women than in men. The frequency of imaging tests decreased during the pandemic period (2020-2021), but the frequency of CT and nuclear medicine tests increased even during these years (p < 0.001) and thus, the overall effective mean dose. Women and men living in the least deprived areas had a higher frequency of imaging test than those living in the most deprived areas. (4) Conclusions: The largest increase in the number of imaging tests is due to CTs, which account for the higher amount of effective dose. The difference in the increase of imaging tests carried out in men and women and according to the socioeconomic status could reflect different management strategies and barriers to access in clinical practice. Given the low impact of the available recommendations on the population exposure to radiation and the performance of high-dose procedures such as CT, deserve special attention when it comes to justification and optimization, especially in women.

Evaluation of Diagnostic Strategies for Identifying SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Clinical Practice: a Systematic Review and Compliance with the Standards for Reporting Diagnostic Accuracy Studies Guideline (STARD).

We aimed to review strategies for identifying SARS-CoV-2 infection before the availability of molecular test results, and to assess the reporting quality of the studies identified through the application of the STARD guideline. We screened 3,821 articles published until 30 April 2021, of which 23 met the inclusion criteria: including at least two diagnostic variables, being designed for use in clinical practice or in a public health context and providing diagnostic accuracy rates. Data extraction and application of STARD criteria were performed independently by two researchers and discrepancies were discussed with a third author. Most of the studies (16, 69.6%) included symptomatic patients with suspected infection, six studies (26.1%) included patients already diagnosed and one study (4.3%) included individuals with close contact to a COVID-positive patient. The main variables considered in the studies, which included symptomatic patients, were imaging and demographic characteristics, symptoms, and lymphocyte count. The values for area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC)ranged from 53-97.4. Seven studies (30.4%) validated the diagnostic model in an independent sample. The average number of STARD criteria fulfilled was 17.6 (maximum, 27 and minimum, 5). High diagnostic accuracy values are shown when more than one diagnostic variable is considered, mainly imaging and demographic characteristics, symptoms, and lymphocyte count. This could offer the potential to identify individuals with SARS-CoV-2 infection with high accuracy when molecular testing is not available. However, external validation for developed models and evaluations in populations as similar as possible to those in which they will be applied is urgently needed. IMPORTANCE According to this review, the inclusion of more than one diagnostic test in the diagnostic process for COVID-19 infection shows high diagnostic accuracy values. Imaging characteristics, patients' symptoms, demographic characteristics, and lymphocyte count were the variables most frequently included in the diagnostic models. However, developed models should be externally validated before reaching conclusions on their utility in practice. In addition, it is important to bear in mind that the test should be evaluated in populations as similar as possible to those in which it will be applied in practice.

Solving gender gaps in health, what else is missing? / Resolviendo las brechas de género en salud, ¿qué más falta?

In recent years, a great deal of attention has been paid to gender inequities in health. However, while we have a good body of evidence on the impact of gender on the health and vulnerability of women and men, we have not yet been able to generate sufficient evidence on effective interventions that can transform this situation or can influence public health policy making. Only a limited number of educational interventions on gender-sensitivity, gender bias in clinical practice and policies to tackle gender inequalities in health have been formulated, implemented and evaluated. Even in the current pandemic situation caused by SARS-CoV2, we have seen the lack of gender mainstreaming reflected in the global response. This happens even when we have tools that facilitate the formulation and implementation of actions to reduce gender inequities in health. We consider that the current initiatives organized to carry out advocacy activities on gender inequity in health to be very positive. In the same line of these initiatives, we propose that while academic and institutional research on gender and health remains essential, we need to shift the focus towards action. In order to move forward, we need public health researchers questioning what public health practice need to do to address gender inequities and shake structural and social power inequities in order to increase the gender equity in health. (AU)

En los últimos años se ha prestado mucha atención a las desigualdades de género en salud. Si bien hay abundante evidencia sobre el impacto del género en la salud y la vulnerabilidad de mujeres y hombres, aún no se ha podido generar evidencia suficiente sobre intervenciones efectivas que puedan transformar esta situación o que puedan influir en la formulación de políticas de salud pública. Solo se han formulado, implementado y evaluado un número limitado de intervenciones educativas sobre la sensibilidad de género, de intervenciones para reducir el sesgo de género en la práctica clínica y de políticas para abordar las desigualdades de género en la salud. Incluso en la actual situación de pandemia causada por el SARS-CoV2 se ha visto la falta de transversalización de género reflejada en la respuesta global. Esto sucede incluso cuando se cuenta con herramientas que facilitan la formulación y la implementación de acciones para reducir las inequidades de género en salud. Consideramos que las iniciativas actuales para realizar acciones con incidencia sobre la inequidad de género en salud son muy positivas. En esta línea, proponemos que, si bien la investigación académica e institucional sobre género y salud sigue siendo fundamental, hay que cambiar el enfoque hacia la acción. Para avanzar, es necesario que las personas que investigan en salud pública se cuestionen qué deben hacer las prácticas de salud pública para abordar las inequidades de género y hacer tambalear las inequidades estructurales y de poder social con el fin de aumentar la equidad de género en la salud. (AU)

Solving gender gaps in health, what else is missing?

In recent years, a great deal of attention has been paid to gender inequities in health. However, while we have a good body of evidence on the impact of gender on the health and vulnerability of women and men, we have not yet been able to generate sufficient evidence on effective interventions that can transform this situation or can influence public health policy making. Only a limited number of educational interventions on gender-sensitivity, gender bias in clinical practice and policies to tackle gender inequalities in health have been formulated, implemented and evaluated. Even in the current pandemic situation caused by SARS-CoV2, we have seen the lack of gender mainstreaming reflected in the global response. This happens even when we have tools that facilitate the formulation and implementation of actions to reduce gender inequities in health. We consider that the current initiatives organized to carry out advocacy activities on gender inequity in health to be very positive. In the same line of these initiatives, we propose that while academic and institutional research on gender and health remains essential, we need to shift the focus towards action. In order to move forward, we need public health researchers questioning what public health practice need to do to address gender inequities and shake structural and social power inequities in order to increase the gender equity in health.

It Is Not Enough to Assess Conflicts of Interest When We Bring the Commercial Sector to the Policy Table Comment on "Towards Preventing and Managing Conflict of Interest in Nutrition Policy? An Analysis of Submissions to a Consultation on a Draft WHO Tool".

Ralston et al offer us an interesting analysis of the consultation process of World Health Organization's (WHO's) "Draft approach on the prevention and management of conflicts of interests in the policy development and implementation of nutrition programs at country level," in which it shows us how the industry tries to frame the discussion in individual conflicts of interest, avoiding structural conflicts of interest. We must not forget other issues of importance in policy-making, such as the imbalance of power between different actors and the strategies of undue influence used by food and beverage corporations. It is essential to develop regulatory-based tools and procedures that embody ethics and good governance and that can be applied systematically and routinely to prevent corporate influence in health policy-making. A global observatory of corporate practices would also be needed to recommend to governments efficient actions to avoid corporate capture of their policies.

Encuadre mediático de la obesidad infantil en las noticias de prensa generalista en España / Framing of childhood obesity in Spanish lay press

Objetivo: Explorar el encuadre mediático sobre la obesidad infantil, individual o colectivo, de las noticias en los principales medios generalistas españoles. Método: Análisis de una muestra de 132 noticias sobre obesidad infantil (agosto de 2016 a septiembre de 2018). Se realizó un análisis descriptivo sobre encuadre, medidas y causas del problema, y la influencia de la industria alimentaria en la elaboración de la noticia. Resultados: El 47% de las noticias tuvieron un encuadre exclusivamente individual. Un 54% incluyeron como causas conductas relacionadas con la alimentación o el ejercicio físico. Un 29% de las medidas proponen favorecer un entorno saludable y un 27% son recomendaciones individuales. El encuadre fue individual en un 77% de las noticias en las que la industria influyó en su redacción. Conclusión: La obesidad infantil se representa en la principal prensa española como un problema individual. Esta percepción mayoritaria puede condicionar el desarrollo y la implementación de políticas o intervenciones de salud pública. (AU)

Objective: To explore the frame, individual or collective, of childhood obesity in the main Spanish lay media. Method: Analysis of a convenience sample of 132 publications regarding childhood obesity (August 2016-September 2018). Descriptive analysis about approach, measures and causes of obesity and food industry influence in the development of the publication. Results: 47% of the publications presented an individual approach. 54% included eating and physical activity as cause. 29% of the measures propose a healthy environment and 27% individual recommendations. Individual frame was present in 77% of the news influenced by the industry. Conclusion: Publications on childhood obesity of the main Spanish lay press reveal a predominance of the individual approach to the problem. This majority perception may condition the development and implementation of public health policies or interventions. (AU)

Contextualizing Evidence for Action on Diabetes in Low-Resource Settings-Project CEAD Part-II, Strengthening the Health System: A Mixed-Methods Study Protocol.

Diabetes is a major public health problem, increasingly affecting low- and middle-income countries. The project CEAD (Contextualizing Evidence for Action in Diabetes in low-resource settings) aims to evaluate the implementation of comprehensive diabetes care in two low-resource settings in Ecuador and to stimulate context-led health systems innovations to improve diabetes care and reduce inequity. The mixed-methods approach includes a 24-month retrospective study to assess the current level of implementation of comprehensive diabetes care and participants will be followed up prospectively for two years to assess changes in healthcare and clinical outcomes from the outset of the research. We will include individuals diagnosed with type-2 diabetes aged over 18 years, who are accessing diabetes care in health facilities in the study districts. Varied stakeholders (patients and family members, community members, healthcare workers and decision-makers) will interpret the underlying causes of the observed weaknesses and propose solutions to strengthen diabetes-related healthcare in focus group discussions (FG). A second set of FG will analyze perceived improvements in healthcare based on prospective cohort findings and consider the success/failure of any context-led innovations occurring throughout the research. Our study will demonstrate how evidence can be contextualized to stimulate local innovations and overcome weaknesses of diabetes-related healthcare in low resource settings.

Have Policies Tackled Gender Inequalities in Health? A Scoping Review.

Gender is recognized as one of the most relevant determinants of health inequalities. This scoping review sought to identify and analyse policies, either implemented or formulated as proposals, which aimed to reduce gender inequalities in health. We searched Medline, Web of Science, and Scielo. Of 2895 records, 91 full text articles were analysed, and 33 papers were included. Of these papers, 22 described the process of formulation, implementation, or evaluation of policies whose aim was to reduce gender inequalities in health; six focused on recommendations, and the remaining five dealt with both issues. Our review showed that the policies aimed at reducing gender inequalities in health, either implemented or formulated as proposals, are scarce. Moreover, despite some success, overall progress has been slow. The studies show failures in design and particularly in the implementation process. We found a lack of awareness and capacity in the policy-making progress, under-financing, bureaucratization, shortage of relevant data, and absence of women's participation in decision-making. Therefore, an emphasis on the design and implementation of gender-sensitive policies seems essential to advance gender equality in health. This scoping review gathers evidence to support the design of such policies and recommendations that can facilitate their implementation.

[Framing of childhood obesity in Spanish lay press]. / Encuadre mediático de la obesidad infantil en las noticias de prensa generalista en España.

OBJECTIVE: To explore the frame, individual or collective, of childhood obesity in the main Spanish lay media. METHOD: Analysis of a convenience sample of 132 publications regarding childhood obesity (August 2016-September 2018). Descriptive analysis about approach, measures and causes of obesity and food industry influence in the development of the publication. RESULTS: 47% of the publications presented an individual approach. 54% included eating and physical activity as cause. 29% of the measures propose a healthy environment and 27% individual recommendations. Individual frame was present in 77% of the news influenced by the industry. CONCLUSION: Publications on childhood obesity of the main Spanish lay press reveal a predominance of the individual approach to the problem. This majority perception may condition the development and implementation of public health policies or interventions.

COVID-19 en clave de género / COVID-19 in gender key

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Sesgos de género en el esfuerzo terapéutico: de la investigación a la atención sanitaria / Gender bias in therapeutic effort: from research to health care

Existen dimensiones relevantes desde una perspectiva de género relaciona-das con el esfuerzo terapéutico. Se pretende ilustrar y traer a debate posibles sesgos de género relacionados con los medicamentos, mediante el análisis del consumo en las mujeres, la prescripción de fármacos biológicos según sexo, la potencial desigualdad de género en las reacciones adversas a los medicamentos y la investigación con ensayos clínicos, así como las decisiones de las instituciones internacionales en la comercialización de medicamentos. mSe observa una mayor tendencia a prescribir analgésicos, con independencia del dolor, y fármacos para síntomas depresivos de baja intensidad en mujeres que en hombres. Lo contrario sucede en la prescripción de estatinas y dosis adecuadas, y con la mayor probabilidad de prescripción de antifactor de necrosis tumoral en hombres que en mujeres con espondilitis anquilosante, pese a la similar carga de la enfermedad. Las reacciones adversas a los medicamentos se observan con más frecuencia en mujeres que en hombres, donde determinantes como el peso corporal están influyendo poco en la dosificación. En la actualidad se considera escasamente en la prescripción que las mujeres presentan diferencias en la actividad de las enzimas del citocromo CYPP450, que puede afectar a la velocidad del metabolismo hepático. Incluso hay efectos inmunológicos, genéticos y epigenéticos (por la herencia y la dosificación desigual de los genes ubicados en los cromosomas X e Y) que pueden influir en estas diferencias por sexo. Por último, mediante los casos de ensayos clínicos de la terapia hormonal, un fármaco para el deseo sexual inhibido de las mujeres y un anticonceptivo para hombres, se muestran sesgos y estereotipos de género que influyen en una potencial generación de desigualdades, especialmente en las reacciones adversas a los medicamentos en perjuicio de las mujeres. Concluyendo, los profesionales sanitarios atribuyen con frecuencia a la emocionalidad de las mujeres lo que son síntomas físicos, influyendo en la mayor prescripción de fármacos sintomáticos en ellas. Debe analizarse si la misma razón influye en la menor prescripción de fármacos terapéuticos en mujeres que en hombres. Existen determinantes biológicos a considerar por su influencia en una mayor toxicidad farmacológica en las mujeres. Los ensayos clínicos deben mejorar atendiendo a las recomendaciones de género de la Food and Drug Administration

There are relevant dimensions from a gender perspective related to the-rapeutic effort. To illustrate and discuss possible gender bias related to medicines, through the consumption analysis in women, the prescription of biological drugs according to sex, the potential gender inequality in adverse drug reactions, and research with clinical trials, as well as the decisions of international institutions in the marketing of medicinal products.There is greater tendency to prescribe pain relievers, regardless of pain, and drugs for low intensity depressive symptoms in women than in men. The opposite occurs in the prescription of statins and adequate doses, and with the greater probability of prescribing anti-tumor necrosis factor in men than in women with ankylosing spondylitis, despite a similar disease burden. Adverse drug reactions are observed more frequently in women than in men, where determinants such as body weight are having little influence on the dosage. It is currently scarcely considered in the prescrip-tion that women have differences in the activity of cytochrome CYPP450 enzymes, which can affect the liver's metabolism rate. There are even immunological, genetic and epigenetic effects (due to heredity and une-ven gene dosing located in the X and Y chromosomes) that can influence these differences by sex. Finally, through cases of hormonal therapy clini-cal trials, a drug for women's inhibited sexual desire and a contraceptive for men, gender bias and stereotypes are shown to influence a potential generation of inequalities, especially in adverse drug reactions to the de-triment of women. In conclusion, health professionals frequently attribute physical symptoms to women's emotionality, influencing their greater prescription of sympto-matic drugs. Whether the same reason influences the lower prescription of therapeutic drugs in women than in men should be analyzed. There are biological determinants to consider due to their influence on a greater pharmacological toxicity in women. Clinical trials should improve accor-ding to the gender recommendations by the Food and Drugs Administration

Gender bias in therapeutic effort: from research to health care.

There are relevant dimensions from a gender perspective related to  therapeutic effort. To illustrate and discuss possible gender bias related  to medicines, through the consumption analysis in women, the  prescription of biological drugs according to sex, the potential gender  inequality in adverse drug reactions, and research with clinical trials, as  well as the decisions of international institutions in the marketing of  medicinal products. There is greater tendency to prescribe pain  relievers, regardless of pain, and drugs for low intensity depressive  symptoms in women than in men. The opposite occurs in the  prescription of statins and adequate doses, and with the greater  probability of prescribing anti-tumor necrosis factor in men than in  women with ankylosing spondylitis, despite a similar disease burden.  Adverse drug reactions are observed more frequently in women than in  men, where determinants such as body weight are having little influence on the dosage. It is currently scarcely considered in the prescription that women have differences in the activity of cytochrome CYPP450 enzymes, which can affect the liver's metabolism rate. There  are even immunological, genetic and epigenetic effects (due to heredity  and uneven gene dosing located in the X and Y chromosomes) that can  influence these differences by sex. Finally, through cases of hormonal  therapy clinical trials, a drug for women's inhibited sexual desire and a  contraceptive for men, gender bias and stereotypes are shown to  influence a potential generation of inequalities, especially in adverse  drug reactions to the detriment of women. In conclusion, health  professionals frequently attribute physical symptoms to women's  emotionality, influencing their greater prescription of symptomatic drugs. Whether the same reason influences the lower prescription of  therapeutic drugs in women than in men should be analyzed. There are  biological determinants to consider due to their influence on a greater pharmacological toxicity in women. Clinical trials should improve  according to the gender recommendations by the Food and Drugs  Administration.

Existen dimensiones relevantes desde una perspectiva de género  relacionadas con el esfuerzo terapéutico. Se pretende ilustrar y traer a  debate posibles sesgos de género relacionados con los medicamentos,  mediante el análisis del consumo en las mujeres, la prescripción de  fármacos biológicos según sexo, la potencial desigualdad de género en  las reacciones adversas a los medicamentos y la investigación con  ensayos clínicos, así como las decisiones de las instituciones  internacionales en la comercialización de medicamentos. Se observa una mayor tendencia a prescribir analgésicos, con independencia del dolor, y fármacos para síntomas depresivos de baja intensidad en mujeres que  en hombres. Lo contrario sucede en la prescripción de estatinas y dosis  adecuadas, y con la mayor probabilidad de prescripción de antifactor de  necrosis tumoral en hombres que en mujeres con espondilitis anquilosante, pese a la similar carga de la enfermedad. Las  reacciones adversas a los medicamentos se observan con más  frecuencia en mujeres que en hombres, donde determinantes como el  peso corporal están influyendo poco en la dosificación. En la actualidad  se considera escasamente en la prescripción que las mujeres presentan  diferencias en la actividad de las enzimas del citocromo CYPP450, que  puede afectar a la velocidad del metabolismo hepático. Incluso hay  efectos inmunológicos, genéticos y epigenéticos (por la herencia y la  dosificación desigual de los genes ubicados en los cromosomas X e Y)  que pueden influir en estas diferencias por sexo. Por último, mediante  los casos de ensayos clínicos de la terapia hormonal, un fármaco para el deseo sexual inhibido de las mujeres y un anticonceptivo para hombres, se muestran sesgos y estereotipos de género que influyen en una  potencial generación de desigualdades, especialmente en las reacciones  adversas a los medicamentos en perjuicio de las mujeres. Concluyendo,  los profesionales sanitarios atribuyen con frecuencia a la emocionalidad  de las mujeres lo que son síntomas físicos, influyendo en la mayor  prescripción de fármacos sintomáticos en ellas. Debe analizarse si la  misma razón influye en la menor prescripción de fármacos terapéuticos en mujeres que en hombres. Existen determinantes biológicos a considerar por su influencia en una mayor toxicidad farmacológica en las mujeres. Los ensayos clínicos deben mejorar atendiendo a las  recomendaciones de género de la Food and Drug Administration.

Differences in the clinical management of women and men after detection of a solitary pulmonary nodule in clinical practice.

OBJECTIVES: To explore differences in the clinical management of men and women in the 5 years after detecting a solitary pulmonary nodule (SPN) by chest radiograph or CT in routine clinical practice. METHODS: We followed up 545 men and 347 women with an SPN detected by chest radiograph or CT in a retrospective cohort of 25,422 individuals undergoing routine thoracic imaging in 2010-2011. We compared the frequency of each management strategy (no further test, immediate intervention or follow up) according to sex by means of chi-squared. We estimated the relative risk of women versus men of having been followed up instead of an immediate intervention using multivariate logistic regression. We compared by sex the time between detection of the nodule and lung cancer diagnosis, the time between diagnosis and death by means of Mann-Whitney U test and the cumulative effective dose of radiation in each management strategy by means of t test. RESULTS: Women were more likely than men to have follow-up rather than immediate intervention (aRR = 1.8, CI 1.3-2.7, p = 0.002), particularly in those who underwent CT (aRR = 4.2, CI 1.9-9.3, p < 0.001). The median time between SPN detection and lung cancer diagnosis was higher in women (4.2 months, interquartile range (IQR) 5.1) than in men (1.5 months, IQR 16.2). The mean cumulative effective dose was 21.3 mSv, 19.4 mSv in men and 23.9mv in women (p = 0.023). CONCLUSIONS: Our results could reflect decisions based on a greater suspicion of lung cancer in men. The incidental detection of SPNs is increasing, and it is necessary to establish clear strategies aimed to reduce variability in their management according to patient's sex. KEY POINTS: • After incidental finding of SPN, women were less likely to receive an immediate intervention. • Accumulative radiation was higher in women than in men. • Our results could reflect decisions based on a greater suspicion of lung cancer in men.